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Sauna
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There has been widespread research into the health benefits and risks that come from sauna usage; most studies have focused on the Finnish sauna specifically. Sauna bathing leads to mild heat stress, which activates heat shock proteins responsible for repairing misfolded proteins, promoting longevity as well as protection against muscle atrophy and chronic illness.There is significant evidence that lifelong exposure to sauna (once a week or more) reduces the risk of sudden cardiac death; and that risk reduction is correlated with duration and frequency of use; this reduction is more pronounced when sauna bathing is combined with exercise, compared with either of these practices alone. Tentative evidence supports that the heat stress from saunas can reduce blood pressure and arterial stiffness, and therefore also decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease. These benefits are more pronounced in persons with low cardiovascular function.
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wikipedia
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Micro processor
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A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations. The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results (also in binary form) as output.
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wikipedia
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P700
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Photosystem I operates with the functions of producing NADPH, the reduced form of NADP+, at the end of the photosynthetic reaction through electron transfer, and of providing energy to a proton pump and eventually ATP, for instance in cyclic electron transport.
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wikipedia
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IO address
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In some architectures, port-mapped I/O operates via a dedicated I/O bus, alleviating the problem. One merit of memory-mapped I/O is that, by discarding the extra complexity that port I/O brings, a CPU requires less internal logic and is thus cheaper, faster, easier to build, consumes less power and can be physically smaller; this follows the basic tenets of reduced instruction set computing, and is also advantageous in embedded systems. The other advantage is that, because regular memory instructions are used to address devices, all of the CPU's addressing modes are available for the I/O as well as the memory, and instructions that perform an ALU operation directly on a memory operand (loading an operand from a memory location, storing the result to a memory location, or both) can be used with I/O device registers as well.
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wikipedia
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Number Theory
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We now know fast algorithms for testing primality, but, in spite of much work (both theoretical and practical), no truly fast algorithm for factoring. The difficulty of a computation can be useful: modern protocols for encrypting messages (for example, RSA) depend on functions that are known to all, but whose inverses are known only to a chosen few, and would take one too long a time to figure out on one's own. For example, these functions can be such that their inverses can be computed only if certain large integers are factorized.
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wikipedia
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Childhood trauma
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Enduring behavioral responses to stress and epigenetic alterations in adult offspring have been demonstrated to be mediated by changes in gametes in utero effects, variations in early postnatal care, and/or other early life experiences that are influenced by parental exposure (Yehuda, Daskalakis, Bierer, Bader, Klengel, Holsboer, and Binder, 2015). These changes could result in enduring alterations of the stress response as well as the physical health risk. Furthermore, the effects of parental trauma could be transmitted to the next generation by parental distress and the pre- and postnatal environment, as well as by epigenetic marks transmitted via the germline. While epigenetic research has a high potential of advancing our understanding of the consequences of trauma, the findings have to be interpreted with caution, as epigenetics only represent one piece of a complex puzzle of interacting biological and environmental factors.
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wikipedia
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Photosynthesis
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The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the coenzyme NADP with a H+ to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.
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wikipedia
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Electronic oscillator
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An equivalent condition often used instead of the Barkhausen condition is that the circuit's closed loop transfer function (the circuit's complex impedance at its output) have a pair of poles on the imaginary axis. In general, the phase shift of the feedback network increases with increasing frequency so there are only a few discrete frequencies (often only one) which satisfy the second equation. If the amplifier gain A {\displaystyle A} is high enough that the loop gain is unity (or greater, see Startup section) at one of these frequencies, the circuit will oscillate at that frequency.
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wikipedia
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Risk factors for breast cancer
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In 5% of breast cancer cases, there is a strong inherited familial risk.Two autosomal dominant genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, account for most of the cases of familial breast cancer. Women who carry a harmful BRCA mutation have a 60% to 80% risk of developing breast cancer in their lifetimes. Other associated malignancies include ovarian cancer and pancreatic cancer. If a mother or a sister was diagnosed breast cancer, the risk of a hereditary BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation is about 2-fold higher than those women without a familial history. Commercial testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations has been available in most developed countries since at least 2004. In addition to the BRCA genes associated with breast cancer, the presence of NBR2, near breast cancer gene 1, has been discovered, and research into its contribution to breast cancer pathogenesis is ongoing.
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wikipedia
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Hardy–Weinberg principle
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In population genetics, the Hardy–Weinberg principle, also known as the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, model, theorem, or law, states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences. These influences include genetic drift, mate choice, assortative mating, natural selection, sexual selection, mutation, gene flow, meiotic drive, genetic hitchhiking, population bottleneck, founder effect, inbreeding and outbreeding depression. In the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles denoted A and a with frequencies f(A) = p and f(a) = q, respectively, the expected genotype frequencies under random mating are f(AA) = p2 for the AA homozygotes, f(aa) = q2 for the aa homozygotes, and f(Aa) = 2pq for the heterozygotes.
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wikipedia
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Ring Learning with Errors
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The security of modern cryptography, in particular public-key cryptography, is based on the assumed intractability of solving certain computational problems if the size of the problem is large enough and the instance of the problem to be solved is chosen randomly. The classic example that has been used since the 1970s is the integer factorization problem. It is believed that it is computationally intractable to factor the product of two prime numbers if those prime numbers are large enough and chosen at random. As of 2015 research has led to the factorization of the product of two 384-bit primes but not the product of two 512-bit primes.
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Breastfeeding difficulties
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Research published in the Lancet has highlighted a lower risk of HIV transmission with exclusive breastfeeding by HIV positive mothers (4% risk), compared to mixed feeding (10-40% risk). Research on the timing of HIV transmission in 2000 revealed that a "substantial transmission occurs early during breastfeeding," concluding that 75% of all breast milk transmission had occurred within the first 6 months during a randomized control trial in Kenya. This research is of particular importance in developing countries where infant formula is not widely available or safe to prepare. In fact, the World Health Organization recommended breastfeeding in 1987 and 1992 for seropositive and seronegative women in areas where malnutrition and infectious diseases are the major cause of infant mortality.
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Factorization
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Moreover, this factorization is unique up to the order of the factors. Although integer factorization is a sort of inverse to multiplication, it is much more difficult algorithmically, a fact which is exploited in the RSA cryptosystem to implement public-key cryptography. Polynomial factorization has also been studied for centuries.
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wikipedia
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Glossary of genetics (M–Z)
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X chromosome One of two sex chromosomes present in organisms which use the XY sex-determination system, and the only sex chromosome in the X0 system. The X chromosome is found in both males and females and typically contains much more gene content than its counterpart, the Y chromosome. X-inactivation The process by which one of the two copies of the X chromosome is silenced by being irreversibly condensed into transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin in the cells of female therian mammals.
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Environment of evolutionary adaptedness
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It is also true that natural selection favors behavior that maximizes personal fitness. Hamilton's rule describes mathematically whether or not a gene for altruistic behavior will spread in a population: r b > c {\displaystyle rb>c\ } where c {\displaystyle c\ } is the reproductive cost to the altruist, b {\displaystyle b\ } is the reproductive benefit to the recipient of the altruistic behavior, and r {\displaystyle r\ } is the probability, above the population average, of the individuals sharing an altruistic gene – commonly viewed as "degree of relatedness".The concept serves to explain how natural selection can perpetuate altruism. If there is an "altruism gene" (or complex of genes) that influences an organism's behavior to be helpful and protective of relatives and their offspring, this behavior also increases the proportion of the altruism gene in the population, because relatives are likely to share genes with the altruist due to common descent.
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Games theory
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Evolutionary game theory explains this altruism with the idea of kin selection. Altruists discriminate between the individuals they help and favor relatives. Hamilton's rule explains the evolutionary rationale behind this selection with the equation c < b × r, where the cost c to the altruist must be less than the benefit b to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness r. The more closely related two organisms are causes the incidences of altruism to increase because they share many of the same alleles.
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wikipedia
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Protein-coding gene
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It is widely agreed that there are about 20,000 protein-coding genes, with some papers stating exact figures of 21,306. The higher figures include non-protein coding RNA-producing genes that perform other cell functions.Since every base pair can be coded by 2 bits, this is about 750 megabytes of data. An individual somatic (diploid) cell contains twice this amount, that is, about 6 billion base pairs.
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wikipedia
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Infrakingdom
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Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators revised their classification in 2015. In this scheme they introduced two superkingdoms of Prokaryota and Eukaryota and seven kingdoms. Prokaryota have two kingdoms: Bacteria and Archaea. (This was based on the consensus in the Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea, and the Catalogue of Life). The Eukaryota have five kingdoms: Protozoa, Chromista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia. In this classification a protist is any of the eukaryotic unicellular organisms.
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wikipedia
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Trinucleotide repeat expansion
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A trinucleotide repeat expansion, also known as a triplet repeat expansion, is the DNA mutation responsible for causing any type of disorder categorized as a trinucleotide repeat disorder. These are labelled in dynamical genetics as dynamic mutations. Triplet expansion is caused by slippage during DNA replication, also known as "copy choice" DNA replication. Due to the repetitive nature of the DNA sequence in these regions, 'loop out' structures may form during DNA replication while maintaining complementary base pairing between the parent strand and daughter strand being synthesized.
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wikipedia
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Genetic equilibrium
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The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the mathematical framework for genetic equilibrium. Genetic equilibrium itself, whether Hardy-Weinberg or otherwise, provides the groundwork for a number of applications, in including population genetics, conservation and evolutionary biology. With the rapid increase in whole genome sequences available as well as the proliferation of anonymous markers, models have been used to extend the initial theory to all manner of biological contexts. Using data from genetic markers such as ISSRs and RAPDs as well as the predictive potential of statistics, studies have developed models to infer what processes drove the lack of equilibrium.
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wikipedia
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Secondary messengers
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Calcium ions are one type of second messengers and are responsible for many important physiological functions including muscle contraction, fertilization, and neurotransmitter release. The ions are normally bound or stored in intracellular components (such as the endoplasmic reticulum(ER)) and can be released during signal transduction. The enzyme phospholipase C produces diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate, which increases calcium ion permeability into the membrane. Active G-protein open up calcium channels to let calcium ions enter the plasma membrane. The other product of phospholipase C, diacylglycerol, activates protein kinase C, which assists in the activation of cAMP (another second messenger).
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wikipedia
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Merge sort
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In the worst case, merge sort uses approximately 39% fewer comparisons than quicksort does in its average case, and in terms of moves, merge sort's worst case complexity is O(n log n) - the same complexity as quicksort's best case.Merge sort is more efficient than quicksort for some types of lists if the data to be sorted can only be efficiently accessed sequentially, and is thus popular in languages such as Lisp, where sequentially accessed data structures are very common. Unlike some (efficient) implementations of quicksort, merge sort is a stable sort. Merge sort's most common implementation does not sort in place; therefore, the memory size of the input must be allocated for the sorted output to be stored in (see below for variations that need only n/2 extra spaces).
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Mating preferences
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However, feminist anthropological research has shown that the higher parental investment by females cannot consistently explain a unidirectional gender difference of males being more willing to pursue sexual intercourse with multiple mates; the research of Sarah Hrdy has shown that female apes seek out sexual relations with many mates to accumulate more resources from those male mates who will invest resources given that the female ape's offspring may be any one of the male ape's offspring Thus, if there are opposing trends in gender differences of mating strategies across various species despite similar gender differences in parental investment across species, gender differences in mating preferences in humans (such as the tendency for male humans to be more willing to engage in intercourse sooner and with more partners) cannot be attributed solely to universal, inherent, dispositional differences between males and females on the basis of the evolutionary perspective; social factors, such as social structures effecting differential power and status between men and women, must also be taken into account. For instance, in more egalitarian cultures, there is less of an age difference between men and women in relationships, indicating the role of social power and status differences in influencing gender differences in age preference (men preferring younger mates, and women preferring older mates). Mate preference changes depending on the strategy being used: when searching for a long-term mate, women often tend to emphasise resources, but in the short term, a potential mate's physical attractiveness is weighed more heavily because it is a good indicator of desirable genes.
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wikipedia
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Mating preferences
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However, feminist anthropological research has shown that the higher parental investment by females cannot consistently explain a unidirectional gender difference of males being more willing to pursue sexual intercourse with multiple mates; the research of Sarah Hrdy has shown that female apes seek out sexual relations with many mates to accumulate more resources from those male mates who will invest resources given that the female ape's offspring may be any one of the male ape's offspring Thus, if there are opposing trends in gender differences of mating strategies across various species despite similar gender differences in parental investment across species, gender differences in mating preferences in humans (such as the tendency for male humans to be more willing to engage in intercourse sooner and with more partners) cannot be attributed solely to universal, inherent, dispositional differences between males and females on the basis of the evolutionary perspective; social factors, such as social structures effecting differential power and status between men and women, must also be taken into account. For instance, in more egalitarian cultures, there is less of an age difference between men and women in relationships, indicating the role of social power and status differences in influencing gender differences in age preference (men preferring younger mates, and women preferring older mates). Mate preference changes depending on the strategy being used: when searching for a long-term mate, women often tend to emphasise resources, but in the short term, a potential mate's physical attractiveness is weighed more heavily because it is a good indicator of desirable genes.
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wikipedia
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Protista taxonomy
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A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (one with cells containing a nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, since they exclude certain eukaryotes with whom they share a common ancestor; but, like algae or invertebrates, the grouping is used for convenience. In some systems of biological classification, such as the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, the protists make up a kingdom called Protista, composed of "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues". In the 21st century, the classification shifted toward a two-kingdom system of protists: Chromista (containing the chromalveolate, rhizarian and hacrobian groups) and Protozoa (containing excavates and all protists more closely related to animals and fungi).The following groups contain protists.
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wikipedia
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Newton–Laplace equation
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The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit of time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elastic medium. At 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound in air is about 343 metres per second (1,125 ft/s; 1,235 km/h; 767 mph; 667 kn), or one kilometre in 2.91 s or one mile in 4.69 s. It depends strongly on temperature as well as the medium through which a sound wave is propagating. At 0 °C (32 °F), the speed of sound in air is about 331 m/s (1,086 ft/s; 1,192 km/h; 740 mph; 643 kn).
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Single-unit smooth muscle
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Smooth muscle contraction is caused by the sliding of myosin and actin filaments (a sliding filament mechanism) over each other. The energy for this to happen is provided by the hydrolysis of ATP. Myosin functions as an ATPase utilizing ATP to produce a molecular conformational change of part of the myosin and produces movement. Movement of the filaments over each other happens when the globular heads protruding from myosin filaments attach and interact with actin filaments to form crossbridges.
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wikipedia
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Daniel Atkinson (biochemist)
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Atkinson and Walton introduced the concept of energy charge, later discussed more fully, as a way to rationalize the dependence of metabolic processes on the proportions of the adenylates. For pairs of metabolites, such as the reduced and oxidized forms of NAD, a straightforward ratio of concentrations is sufficient, but the case of the adenylates is more complicated, as there are three components to be considered, AMP, ADP and ATP. The three adenylates are related by the reaction catalysed by adenylate kinase: ATP + AMP ↽ − − ⇀ 2 ADP {\displaystyle {\ce {ATP + AMP <=> 2 ADP}}} and on the basis of this equation Atkinson proposed the following ratio as a measure of the metabolic state of a cell: E n e r g y c h a r g e = + 0.5 + + {\displaystyle \mathrm {Energy} {\text{ }}\mathrm {charge} ={\frac {+0.5}{++}}}
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wikipedia
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Neutral mutation
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Neutral mutations are measured in population and evolutionary genetics often by looking at variation in populations. These have been measured historically by gel electrophoresis to determine allozyme frequencies. Statistical analyses of this data is used to compare variation to predicted values based on population size, mutation rates and effective population size. Early observations that indicated higher than expected heterozygosity and overall variation within the protein isoforms studied, drove arguments as to the role of selection in maintaining this variation versus the existence of variation through the effects of neutral mutations arising and their random distribution due to genetic drift.
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wikipedia
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Allele frequencies
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Population genetics describes the genetic composition of a population, including allele frequencies, and how allele frequencies are expected to change over time. The Hardy–Weinberg law describes the expected equilibrium genotype frequencies in a diploid population after random mating. Random mating alone does not change allele frequencies, and the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium assumes an infinite population size and a selectively neutral locus.In natural populations natural selection (adaptation mechanism), gene flow, and mutation combine to change allele frequencies across generations. Genetic drift causes changes in allele frequency from random sampling due to offspring number variance in a finite population size, with small populations experiencing larger per generation fluctuations in frequency than large populations.
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wikipedia
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Purple nonsulfur bacteria
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Then a dish of the bacteria was taken, and a light was focused on one part of the dish, leaving the rest dark. As the bacteria cannot survive without light, all the bacteria moved into the circle of light, becoming very crowded. If the bacteria's byproduct was oxygen, the distances between individuals would become larger and larger as more oxygen was produced. But because of the bacteria's behavior in the focused light, it was concluded that the bacteria's photosynthetic byproduct could not be oxygen.In a 2018 Frontiers in Energy Research article, it has been suggested that purple bacteria can be used as a biorefinery.
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wikipedia
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Population size
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Of the five conditions required to maintain Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, infinite population size will always be violated; this means that some degree of genetic drift is always occurring. Smaller population size leads to increased genetic drift, it has been hypothesized that this gives these groups an evolutionary advantage for acquisition of genome complexity. An alternate hypothesis posits that while genetic drift plays a larger role in small populations developing complexity, selection is the mechanism by which large populations develop complexity.
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wikipedia
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Glossary of genetics (M–Z)
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nucleosome The basic structural subunit of chromatin used in packaging nuclear DNA such as chromosomes, consisting of a core particle of eight histone proteins around which double-stranded DNA is wrapped in a manner akin to thread wound around a spool. The technical definition of a nucleosome includes a segment of DNA about 146 base pairs in length which makes 1.67 left-handed turns as it coils around the histone core, as well as a stretch of linker DNA (generally 38–80 bp) connecting it to an adjacent core particle, though the term is often used to refer to the core particle alone. Long series of nucleosomes are further condensed by association with histone H1 into higher-order structures such as 30-nm fibers and ultimately supercoiled chromatids.
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wikipedia
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Helping behavior
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Kin selection theory explains altruism from an evolutionary perspective. Since natural selection screens out species without abilities to adapt to the challenging environment, preservation of good traits and superior genes are important for survival of future generations (i.e. inclusive fitness). Kin selection refers to an inheritable tendency to perform behaviors that may favor the chance of survival of people with a similar genetic base.W. D. Hamilton proposed a mathematical expression for the kin selection: rB>C"where B is the benefit to the recipient, C is the cost to the altruist (both measured as the number of offspring gained or lost) and r is the coefficient of relationship (i.e. the probability that they share the same gene by descent).
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wikipedia
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Recombination (genetics)
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In meiosis and mitosis, recombination occurs between similar molecules of DNA (homologous sequences). In meiosis, non-sister homologous chromosomes pair with each other so that recombination characteristically occurs between non-sister homologues. In both meiotic and mitotic cells, recombination between homologous chromosomes is a common mechanism used in DNA repair.
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wikipedia
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Cap-independent translation element
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In molecular biology, a cap-independent translation element (CITE or 3'CITE) is an RNA sequence found in the 3'UTR of many RNA plant viruses. Eukaryotic mRNAs contain a 5' cap structure which is required for efficient binding of translation initiation factors. Many viral mRNAs lack the 5' cap, animal virus mRNAs often contain an internal ribosome entry site which functions in translation initiation.
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wikipedia
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Human reproductive ecology
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Over the course of human evolution, there is evidence of reduced sexual dimorphism in humans compared to other primates. This suggests that there was less male-male competition for female mates, which led to more male investment in offspring, rather than mate choices. Paternal investment strategies vary facultatively based on alloparental care, the costs and benefits of offspring investment, societal pressures, divisions of labor, cultural expectations and norms, and the individual qualities of males in any given society.
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wikipedia
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Attachment styles
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And a child's "uncles and aunts" (father's siblings and their spouses) also contribute to the child's psycho-social enrichment.Although it has been debated for years, and there are differences across cultures, research has shown that the three basic aspects of attachment theory are, to some degree, universal. Studies in Israel and Japan resulted in findings which diverge from a number of studies completed in Western Europe and the United States. The prevailing hypotheses are: 1) that secure attachment is the most desirable state, and the most prevalent; 2) maternal sensitivity influences infant attachment patterns; and 3) specific infant attachments predict later social and cognitive competence.
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Infrared sauna
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All of the studies in the review were limited: they small sample sizes, short duration, unvalidated symptom scales, and were conducted by the same core research group. In February 2021 Steven Novella of Science-Based Medicine commented on the quality of studies in an article entitled "Infrared Saunas for 'Detoxification'" he stated that: Most of the mainstream attention is on the cardiovascular effects. Using a sauna does correlate with reduced blood pressure (in some, BP may also increase), increased heart rate, increased dermal perfusion with a reduction in organ perfusion, and increased left ventricular function and arterial flexibility.
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Waon therapy
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All of the studies in the review were limited: they small sample sizes, short duration, unvalidated symptom scales, and were conducted by the same core research group. In February 2021 Steven Novella of Science-Based Medicine commented on the quality of studies in an article entitled "Infrared Saunas for 'Detoxification'" he stated that: Most of the mainstream attention is on the cardiovascular effects. Using a sauna does correlate with reduced blood pressure (in some, BP may also increase), increased heart rate, increased dermal perfusion with a reduction in organ perfusion, and increased left ventricular function and arterial flexibility.
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wikipedia
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Maternal deprivation
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"Within attachment theory, Bowlby, in Attachment and Loss, volume one of Attachment (1969), makes it quite clear that infants become attached to carers who are sensitive and responsive in their social interactions with them and that this does not have to be the mother or indeed a female. As a matter of social reality mothers are more often the primary carers of children and therefore are more likely to be the primary attachment figure, but the process of attachment applies to any carer and infants develop a number of attachments according to who relates to them and the intensity of the engagement. However, attachment theory relates to the development of attachment behaviours and relationships after about 7 months of age and there are other theories and research relating to earlier carer–infant interactions. Schaffer in Social Development (1996) suggests that the father–child relationship is primarily a cultural construction shaped by the requirements of each society. In societies where the care of infants has been assigned to boys rather than girls, no difference in nurturing capacity was found.
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wikipedia
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Maternal deprivation
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"Within attachment theory, Bowlby, in Attachment and Loss, volume one of Attachment (1969), makes it quite clear that infants become attached to carers who are sensitive and responsive in their social interactions with them and that this does not have to be the mother or indeed a female. As a matter of social reality mothers are more often the primary carers of children and therefore are more likely to be the primary attachment figure, but the process of attachment applies to any carer and infants develop a number of attachments according to who relates to them and the intensity of the engagement. However, attachment theory relates to the development of attachment behaviours and relationships after about 7 months of age and there are other theories and research relating to earlier carer–infant interactions. Schaffer in Social Development (1996) suggests that the father–child relationship is primarily a cultural construction shaped by the requirements of each society. In societies where the care of infants has been assigned to boys rather than girls, no difference in nurturing capacity was found.
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wikipedia
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Margin classifier
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In machine learning, a margin classifier is a classifier which is able to give an associated distance from the decision boundary for each example. For instance, if a linear classifier (e.g. perceptron or linear discriminant analysis) is used, the distance (typically euclidean distance, though others may be used) of an example from the separating hyperplane is the margin of that example. The notion of margin is important in several machine learning classification algorithms, as it can be used to bound the generalization error of the classifier. These bounds are frequently shown using the VC dimension. Of particular prominence is the generalization error bound on boosting algorithms and support vector machines.
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Plant cells
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Phloem is a specialised tissue for food transport in higher plants, mainly transporting sucrose along pressure gradients generated by osmosis, a process called translocation. Phloem is a complex tissue, consisting of two main cell types, the sieve tubes and the intimately associated companion cells, together with parenchyma cells, phloem fibres and sclereids. : 171 Sieve tubes are joined end-to-end with perforated end-plates between known as sieve plates, which allow transport of photosynthate between the sieve elements. The sieve tube elements lack nuclei and ribosomes, and their metabolism and functions are regulated by the adjacent nucleate companion cells. The companion cells, connected to the sieve tubes via plasmodesmata, are responsible for loading the phloem with sugars. The bryophytes lack phloem, but moss sporophytes have a simpler tissue with analogous function known as the leptome.
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wikipedia
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Integer factorization records
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Integer factorization is the process of determining which prime numbers divide a given positive integer. Doing this quickly has applications in cryptography. The difficulty depends on both the size and form of the number and its prime factors; it is currently very difficult to factorize large semiprimes (and, indeed, most numbers which have no small factors).
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Human geneticist
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Population genetics is the branch of evolutionary biology responsible for investigating processes that cause changes in allele and genotype frequencies in populations based upon Mendelian inheritance. Four different forces can influence the frequencies: natural selection, mutation, gene flow (migration), and genetic drift. A population can be defined as a group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring. For human genetics the populations will consist only of the human species. The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a widely used principle to determine allelic and genotype frequencies.
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wikipedia
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Eukaryotic transcription
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Eukaryotic transcription proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.The RNAs transcribed serve diverse functions. For example, structural components of the ribosome are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. Protein coding genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II into messenger RNAs (mRNAs) that carry the information from DNA to the site of protein synthesis. More abundantly made are the so-called non-coding RNAs account for the large majority of the transcriptional output of a cell. These non-coding RNAs perform a variety of important cellular functions.
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wikipedia
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Baby-led weaning
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As recommended by the World Health Organization and several other health authorities across the world, there is no need to introduce solid food to a baby's diet until after 6 months. This guidance is based on research indicating that it is from this age that infants begin to need additional nutrients that cannot be supplied by breastmilk or formula alone. The time period from 6 to 18–24 months of age is when the risk of malnutrition is high in infants and the role of breastmilk or infant formula remains important throughout this period.
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Factoring integers
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The researchers estimated that a 1024-bit RSA modulus would take about 500 times as long.Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems (for currently known techniques) are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers. When they are both large, for instance more than two thousand bits long, randomly chosen, and about the same size (but not too close, for example, to avoid efficient factorization by Fermat's factorization method), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest computers can take enough time to make the search impractical; that is, as the number of digits of the integer being factored increases, the number of operations required to perform the factorization on any computer increases drastically. Many cryptographic protocols are based on the difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem—for example, the RSA problem. An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure.
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Infant formula
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The use and marketing of infant formula has come under scrutiny. Breastfeeding, including exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, is widely advocated as "ideal" for babies and infants, both by health authorities—and accordingly in ethical advertising of infant formula manufacturers.Despite the recommendation that babies be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months, less than 40% of infants below this age are exclusively breastfed worldwide. The overwhelming majority of American babies are not exclusively breastfed for this period—in 2005 under 12% of babies were breastfed exclusively for the first 6 months, with over 60% of babies of 2 months of age being fed formula, and approximately one in four breastfed infants having infant formula feeding within two days of birth.Some studies have shown that use of formula can vary according to the parents' socio-economic status, ethnicity or other characteristics. For example, according to a research conducted in Vancouver, Canada, 82.9% of mothers breastfeed their babies at birth, but the number differed between Caucasians (91.6%) and non-Caucasians (56.8%), with the difference essentially attributed to marital status, education and family income. In the United States, mothers of lower socio-economic status have been found less likely to breastfeed, although this may be partly related to adverse effects of government nutrition supplementation programs that provide subsidies for infant formula.The use of hydrolysed cow milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk of allergies or autoimmune diseases.
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Deoxygenated hemoglobin
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Hemoglobin variants are a part of the normal embryonic and fetal development. They may also be pathologic mutant forms of hemoglobin in a population, caused by variations in genetics. Some well-known hemoglobin variants, such as sickle-cell anemia, are responsible for diseases and are considered hemoglobinopathies.
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Human genetics
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Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the same probability of inheritance. Since humans have many more genes on the X than the Y, there are many more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits. However, females carry two or more copies of the X chromosome, resulting in a potentially toxic dose of X-linked genes.To correct this imbalance, mammalian females have evolved a unique mechanism of dosage compensation. In particular, by way of the process called X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), female mammals transcriptionally silence one of their two Xs in a complex and highly coordinated manner.
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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
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It appears in the last step of the electron chain of the light reactions of photosynthesis. It is used as reducing power for the biosynthetic reactions in the Calvin cycle to assimilate carbon dioxide and help turn the carbon dioxide into glucose. It has functions in accepting electrons in other non-photosynthetic pathways as well: it is needed in the reduction of nitrate into ammonia for plant assimilation in nitrogen cycle and in the production of oils.There are several other lesser-known mechanisms of generating NADPH, all of which depend on the presence of mitochondria in eukaryotes.
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Evolutionary genetics
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The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. According to this principle, the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and genetic drift. The next key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher.
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Child psychopathology
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The current trend in the U.S. is to understand child psychopathology from a systems based perspective called developmental psychopathology. Recent emphasis has also been on understanding psychological disorders from a relational perspective with attention also given to neurobiology. Practitioners who follow attachment theory believe that early attachment experiences of children can promote adaptive strategies or lay the groundwork for maladaptive ways of coping which can later lead to mental health disorders.Research and clinical work on child psychopathology tends to fall under several main areas: etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment.
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Newton–Laplace equation
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For air, we introduce the shorthand In addition, we switch to the Celsius temperature θ {\displaystyle \theta } = T − 273.15 K, which is useful to calculate air speed in the region near 0 °C (273 K). Then, for dry air, Substituting numerical values and using the ideal diatomic gas value of γ = 1.4000, we have Finally, Taylor expansion of the remaining square root in θ {\displaystyle \theta } yields A graph comparing results of the two equations is to the right, using the slightly more accurate value of 331.5 m/s (1,088 ft/s) for the speed of sound at 0 °C. : 120-121
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K-selected species
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By contrast, K-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches, that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low r, high K). In scientific literature, r-selected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic" whereas K-selected species are described as "equilibrium".In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly). Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected. Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, humans, and whales, but also smaller long-lived organisms such as Arctic terns, parrots and eagles.
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Attachment style
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Research based on data from longitudinal studies, such as the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood, and from cross-sectional studies, consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality. Lyons-Ruth, for example, found that "for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure, the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50%. "There is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children's functioning across multiple domains. Early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties, but it is a liability for the child, particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood.
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Troponin test
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In both cardiac and skeletal muscles, muscular force production is controlled primarily by changes in intracellular calcium concentration. In general, when calcium rises, the muscles contract and, when calcium falls, the muscles relax.Troponin is a component of thin filaments (along with actin and tropomyosin), and is the protein complex to which calcium binds to trigger the production of muscular force. Troponin has three subunits, TnC, TnI, and TnT, each playing a role in force regulation.. Under resting intracellular levels of calcium, tropomyosin covers the active actin sites to which myosin (a molecular motor organized in muscle thick filaments) binds in order to generate force. When calcium becomes bound to specific sites in the N-domain of TnC, a series of protein structural changes occurs, such that tropomyosin is rolled away from myosin-binding sites on actin, allowing myosin to attach to the thin filament and produce force and shorten the sarcomere.Individual subunits serve different functions: Troponin C binds to calcium ions to produce a conformational change in TnI Troponin T binds to tropomyosin, interlocking them to form a troponin-tropomyosin complex Troponin I binds to actin in thin myofilaments to hold the actin-tropomyosin complex in placeSmooth muscle does not have troponin.
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Astrovirus
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Members of a relatively new virus family, the astroviridae, astroviruses are now recognised as a cause of gastroenteritis in children, whose immune systems are underdeveloped, and elderly adults, whose immune systems are generally somewhat compromised. Presence of viral particles in fecal matter and in epithelial intestinal cells indicate that the virus replicates in the gastrointestinal tract of humans. The main symptoms are diarrhoea, followed by nausea, vomiting, fever, malaise and abdominal pain. Some research studies have shown that the incubation period of the disease is approximately three to four days.
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Biological research
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Like groupings such as algae, invertebrates, or protozoans, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes.Plants are mainly multicellular organisms, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some algae. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts.
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EM algorithm
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In statistics, an expectation–maximization (EM) algorithm is an iterative method to find (local) maximum likelihood or maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimates of parameters in statistical models, where the model depends on unobserved latent variables. The EM iteration alternates between performing an expectation (E) step, which creates a function for the expectation of the log-likelihood evaluated using the current estimate for the parameters, and a maximization (M) step, which computes parameters maximizing the expected log-likelihood found on the E step. These parameter-estimates are then used to determine the distribution of the latent variables in the next E step.
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Polynomial algebra
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Except for factorization, all previous properties of K are effective, since their proofs, as sketched above, are associated with algorithms for testing the property and computing the polynomials whose existence are asserted. Moreover these algorithms are efficient, as their computational complexity is a quadratic function of the input size. The situation is completely different for factorization: the proof of the unique factorization does not give any hint for a method for factorizing. Already for the integers, there is no known algorithm running on a classical computer for factorizing them in polynomial time.
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List of C4 plants
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C4 plants use the C4 carbon fixation pathway to increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressing photorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity. There are roughly 8,100 known C4 species, which belong to at least 61 distinct evolutionary lineages in 19 families (as per APG IV classification) of flowering plants. Among these are important crops such as maize, sorghum and sugarcane, but also weeds and invasive plants. Although only 3% of flowering plant species use C4 carbon fixation, they account for 23% of global primary production.
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Heat Pump
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The International Energy Agency estimated that, as of 2021, heat pumps installed in buildings have a combined capacity of more than 1 000 GW. They are used in climates with moderate heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) needs and may also provide domestic hot water and tumble clothes drying functions. The purchase costs are supported in various countries by consumer rebates.
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Trinucleotide repeat expansion
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In trinucleotide repeat expansion there is a certain threshold or maximum amount of repeats that can occur before a sequence becomes unstable. Once this threshold is reached the repeats will start to rapidly expand causing longer and longer expansions in future generations. Once it hits this minimum allele size which is normally around 30-40 repeats, diseases and instability can be contracted, but if the number of repeats found within a sequence are below the threshold it will remain relatively stable. There is still not enough research found to understand the molecular nature that causes thresholds but researchers are continuing to study that the possibility could lie with the formation of the secondary structure when these repeats occur. It was found that diseases associated with trinucleotide repeat expansions contained secondary structures with hairpins, triplexes, and slipped-strand duplexes. These observations have led to the hypothesis that the threshold is determined by the number of repeats that must occur to stabilize the formation of these unwanted secondary structures, due to the fact that when these structures form there is an increased number of mutations that will form in the sequence resulting in more trinucleotide expansion.
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Protist
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The five-kingdom model remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that protists are a paraphyletic group from which animals, fungi and plants evolved from, and the three-domain system (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) became prevalent. Today, protists are not treated as a formal taxon, but the term is commonly used for convenience in two ways: Phylogenetic definition: protists are a paraphyletic group. A protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, land plant or fungus, thus excluding many unicellular groups like the fungal Microsporidia, Chytridiomycetes and yeasts, and the non-unicellular Myxozoan animals included in Protista in the past. Functional definition: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular, that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues. While in popular usage, this definition excludes the variety of non-colonial multicellularity types that protists exhibit, such as aggregative (e.g. choanoflagellates) or complex multicellularity (e.g. brown algae).
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Genetic divergence
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On a molecular genetics level, genetic divergence is due to changes in a small number of genes in a species, resulting in speciation. However, researchers argue that it is unlikely that divergence is a result of a significant, single, dominant mutation in a genetic locus because if that were so, the individual with that mutation would have zero fitness. Consequently, they could not reproduce and pass the mutation on to further generations. Hence, it is more likely that divergence, and subsequently reproductive isolation, are the outcomes of multiple small mutations over evolutionary time accumulating in a population isolated from gene flow.
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Insecure attachment
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However, in academic publications the classification of infants (if subgroups are denoted) is typically simply "B1" or "B2", although more theoretical and review-oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology. Secure attachment is the most common type of attachment relationship seen throughout societies.Securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base (their caregiver) to return to in times of need. When assistance is given, this bolsters the sense of security and also, assuming the parent's assistance is helpful, educates the child on how to cope with the same problem in the future.
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Conjugation (acid-base theory)
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To identify the conjugate acid, look for the pair of compounds that are related. The acid–base reaction can be viewed in a before and after sense. The before is the reactant side of the equation, the after is the product side of the equation. The conjugate acid in the after side of an equation gains a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation the compound that has one less hydrogen ion of the conjugate acid is the base.
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Breast cancer
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This is caused by unobserved risk factors. This implicates environmental and other causes as triggers for breast cancers. The inherited mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes can interfere with repair of DNA cross links and DNA double strand breaks (known functions of the encoded protein).
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Histone H2B type 1-C
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Histone H2B type 1-C/E/F/G/I is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HIST1H2BC gene.Histones are basic nuclear proteins that are responsible for the nucleosome structure of the chromosomal fiber in eukaryotes. Two molecules of each of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) form an octamer, around which approximately 146 bp of DNA is wrapped in repeating units, called nucleosomes. The linker histone, H1, interacts with linker DNA between nucleosomes and functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures. This gene is intronless and encodes a member of the histone H2B family. Transcripts from this gene lack polyA tails but instead contain a palindromic termination element. This gene is found in the large histone gene cluster on chromosome 6.
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Genetic resistance to malaria
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These inherited changes to hemoglobin or other characteristic proteins, which are critical and rather invariant features of mammalian biochemistry, usually cause some kind of inherited disease. Therefore, they are commonly referred to by the names of the blood disorders associated with them, including sickle-cell disease, thalassemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and others. These blood disorders cause increased morbidity and mortality in areas of the world where malaria is less prevalent.
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Experimenter's bias
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Bias is unfortunately an unavoidable problem in epidemiological and clinical research. However, there are a number of potential strategies and solutions for the reduction of observer bias, specifically in the areas of scientific studies and research across the medical field. The effects that bias has can be reduced through the use of strong operational definitions, along with masking, triangulation, and standardisation of procedures, and the continual monitoring of the objectivity of those conducting the experiments and observations. Blinded protocols and double-blinded research can act as a corrective lens in terms of reducing observer bias, and thus, to increase the reliability and accuracy of the data collected.
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Behavioral epigenetics
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Finally, epigenetic variations in parental care can be passed down from one generation to the next, from mother to female offspring. Female offspring who received increased parental care (i.e., high licking) became mothers who engaged in high licking and offspring who received less licking became mothers who engaged in less licking.In humans, a small clinical research study showed the relationship between prenatal exposure to maternal mood and genetic expression resulting in increased reactivity to stress in offspring. Three groups of infants were examined: those born to mothers medicated for depression with serotonin reuptake inhibitors; those born to depressed mothers not being treated for depression; and those born to non-depressed mothers.
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Transistor density
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A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit on a single integrated circuit. It is a multi-purpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the development of the first microprocessors.
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Theory of attachment
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Although attachment theory has become a major scientific theory of socioemotional development with one of the widest research lines in modern psychology, it has, until recently, been less used in clinical practice. The attachment theory focused on the attention of the child when the mother is there and the responses that the child shows when the mother leaves, which indicated the attachment and bonding of the mother and the child. The attention therapy is done while the child is being restrained by the therapists and the responses displayed were noted. The tests were done to show the responses of the child.This may be partly due to lack of attention paid to clinical application by Bowlby himself and partly due to broader meanings of the word 'attachment' used amongst practitioners. It may also be partly due to the mistaken association of attachment theory with the pseudoscientific interventions misleadingly known as "attachment therapy".
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Glossary of genetics (M–Z)
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For example, the binding site for RNA polymerase might be a short sequence immediately upstream of the TSS, from approximately -80 to -5, whereas an intron within the coding region might be defined as the sequence starting at nucleotide +207 and ending at nucleotide +793. transcription unit The segment of DNA between the initiation site and the termination site of transcription, containing the coding sequences for one or more genes. All genes within a transcription unit are transcribed together into a single transcript during a single transcription event; the resulting polycistronic RNA may subsequently be cleaved into separate RNAs, or may be translated as a unit and then cleaved into separate polypeptides.
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Tissue culture
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Animal cell culture is used for many research purposes and commercial business also as: Vaccine production Monoclonal antibody production Enzymes and hormones production In vitro skin and other tissues and organs by stem culturing Viral cultivation
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Dietary protein
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Research also indicates that individuals performing strength training activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4–1.8 g per kg body weight to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high-protein diet as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and also protein supplements.
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Split gene theory
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Because exons code for protein sequences, they are important for the cell, yet constitute only ~2% of the sequences. Introns, in contrast, constitute 98% of the sequences but seem to have few crucial functions, except for enhancer sequences and developmental regulators in rare instances.Until Philip Sharp and Richard Roberts discovered introns within eukaryotic genes in 1977, it was believed that the coding sequence of all genes was always in one single stretch, bounded by a single long ORF. The discovery of introns was a profound surprise, which instantly brought up the questions of how, why and when the introns came into the eukaryotic genes.
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Root of an equation
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This equation can be viewed as a Diophantine equation, that is, an equation for which only integer solutions are sought. In this case, the solution set is the empty set, since 2 is not the square of an integer. However, if one searches for real solutions, there are two solutions, √2 and –√2; in other words, the solution set is {√2, −√2}.
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Surface-area-to-volume ratio
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A solid sphere or ball is a three-dimensional object, being the solid figure bounded by a sphere. (In geometry, the term sphere properly refers only to the surface, so a sphere thus lacks volume in this context.) For an ordinary three-dimensional ball, the SA:V can be calculated using the standard equations for the surface and volume, which are, respectively, S A = 4 π r 2 {\displaystyle SA=4\pi {r^{2}}} and V = ( 4 / 3 ) π r 3 {\displaystyle V=(4/3)\pi {r^{3}}} . For the unit case in which r = 1 the SA:V is thus 3. For the general case, SA:V equals 3/r, in an inverse relationship with the radius - if the radius is doubled, the SA:V halves (see figure).
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List of laser types
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This is a list of laser types, their operational wavelengths, and their applications. Thousands of kinds of laser are known, but most of them are used only for specialized research.
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History of attachment theory
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As a beneficial result of this controversy, training of child care professionals has come to stress attachment issues and the need for relationship-building through techniques such as assignment of a child to a specific care provider. Although only high-quality child care settings are likely to follow through on these considerations, nevertheless a larger number of infants in child care receive attachment-friendly care than was the case in the past, and emotional development of children in nonparental care may be different today than it was in the 1980s or in Bowlby's time.Finally, any critique of attachment theory needs to consider how the theory has connected with changes in other psychological theories. Research on attachment issues has begun to include concepts related to behaviour genetics and to the study of temperament (constitutional factors in personality), but it is unusual for popular presentations of attachment theory to include these. Importantly, some researchers and theorists have begun to connect attachment with the study of mentalization or Theory of Mind, the capacity that allows human beings to guess with some accuracy what thoughts, emotions, and intentions lie behind behaviours as subtle as facial expression or eye movement. The connection of theory of mind with the internal working model of social relationships may open a new area of study and lead to alterations in attachment theory.
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Oxidative decarboxylation
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Pyruvate, the product of glycolysis under aerobic conditions, is a metabolic branch point. As a preliminary to following the central path of aerobic metabolism from glycolysis to the citric acid cycle, we put pyruvate in perspective by considering its various possible fates. We also consider the broader context of common carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions in biochemistry. The most important fate of pyruvate at least for our present purposes is its oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl CoA, this reaction is catalyzed by a very large assembly of enzyme subunits called the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH complex, or often simply "PDH").
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Weaning
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Many mothers find breastfeeding challenging, especially in countries where many mothers have to return to work relatively soon after the birth of their child.The American Academy of Pediatrics, the World Health Organization, the National Health Service Choices UK, and the National Health & Medical Research Council in Australia recommend waiting until 6 months to introduce baby food. However, many baby food companies market their "stage 1" foods to children between 4 and 6 months old with the precaution that the food is meant to be consumed in addition to breast milk or formula and is just for "practice". These practice foods are generally soft and runny.
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Multiclass classification
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Support vector machines are based upon the idea of maximizing the margin i.e. maximizing the minimum distance from the separating hyperplane to the nearest example. The basic SVM supports only binary classification, but extensions have been proposed to handle the multiclass classification case as well. In these extensions, additional parameters and constraints are added to the optimization problem to handle the separation of the different classes.
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List of biological databases
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(See also: List of proteins in the human body) Several publicly available data repositories and resources have been developed to support and manage protein related information, biological knowledge discovery and data-driven hypothesis generation. The databases in the table below are selected from the databases listed in the Nucleic Acids Research (NAR) databases issues and database collection and the databases cross-referenced in the UniProtKB. Most of these databases are cross-referenced with UniProt / UniProtKB so that identifiers can be mapped to each other.Proteins in human: There are about ~20,000 protein coding genes in the standard human genome. (Roughly ~1200 already have Wikipedia articles - the Gene Wiki - about them) if we are Including splice variants, there could be as many as 500,000 unique human proteins
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Extended evolutionary synthesis
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(2008). "Soft Inheritance: Challenging the Modern Synthesis". Genetics and Molecular Biology.
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R/K selection theory
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r-selected species are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high r, low K). A typical r species is the dandelion (genus Taraxacum). In unstable or unpredictable environments, r-selection predominates due to the ability to reproduce rapidly. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again.
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Thermal impedance
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Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications, and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity. The defining equation for thermal conductivity is q = − k ∇ T {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} =-k\nabla T} , where q {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} } is the heat flux, k {\displaystyle k} is the thermal conductivity, and ∇ T {\displaystyle \nabla T} is the temperature gradient.
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Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories
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Currently HIV is considered to be a contraindication for the smallpox vaccine—both for an infected person and their sexual partners and household members. Some conspiracy theorists propose an expanded hypothesis in which the smallpox vaccine was deliberately contaminated with HIV.In contrast, a research article was published in 2010 suggesting that it might have been the actual eradication of smallpox and the subsequent "ending" of the mass vaccination campaign that contributed to the sudden emergence of HIV. The theory was the possibility that immunization against smallpox "might play a role in providing an individual with some degree of protection to subsequent HIV infection and/or disease progression." Regardless of the effects of the smallpox vaccine itself, its use in practice in Africa is one of the categories of un-sterile injections that may have contributed to the spread and mutation of the immunodeficiency viruses.
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Buffer solution
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When choosing a buffer for use at a specific pH, it should have a pKa value as close as possible to that pH. With strongly acidic solutions, pH less than about 2 (coloured red on the plot), the first term in the equation dominates, and buffer capacity rises exponentially with decreasing pH: This results from the fact that the second and third terms become negligible at very low pH. This term is independent of the presence or absence of a buffering agent. With strongly alkaline solutions, pH more than about 12 (coloured blue on the plot), the third term in the equation dominates, and buffer capacity rises exponentially with increasing pH: This results from the fact that the first and second terms become negligible at very high pH. This term is also independent of the presence or absence of a buffering agent.
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HIV
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Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is untransmittable through condomless sexual intercourse if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load.HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells, apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells, direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections, leading to the development of AIDS.
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HIV
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Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. Research has shown (for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples) that HIV is untransmittable through condomless sexual intercourse if the HIV-positive partner has a consistently undetectable viral load.HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through a number of mechanisms, including pyroptosis of abortively infected T cells, apoptosis of uninfected bystander cells, direct viral killing of infected cells, and killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections, leading to the development of AIDS.
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Mass spectrometry data format
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Mass spectrometry is a scientific technique for measuring the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. It is often coupled to chromatographic techniques such as gas- or liquid chromatography and has found widespread adoption in the fields of analytical chemistry and biochemistry where it can be used to identify and characterize small molecules and proteins (proteomics). The large volume of data produced in a typical mass spectrometry experiment requires that computers be used for data storage and processing.
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Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS
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Most organizations work collectively around the globe to understand, diagnose, treat, and battle the spread of this notorious disease, through the use of intervention and preventive programs the risk of acquiring HIV and the development of AIDS has dramatically dropped by 40% since its peak of cases back in 1998.Despite the advancements in scientific research and treatment, to this day there's no available cure for HIV/AIDS. Yet major efforts to contain the disease and improve the lives of many individuals through modernized anti-viral therapy have resulted in positive and promising results that may one day lead to a cure. The U.S.
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Causes of mental disorders
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Attachment theory is a kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context of mental disorders, which focuses on the role of early caregiver-child relationships, responses to danger, and the search for a satisfying reproductive relationship in adulthood. According to this theory, a child's attachment is to a nurturing adult, the more likely that child will maintain healthy relationships with others in their life. As found by the Strange Situation experiment run by Mary Ainsworth based on the formulations of John Bowlby, there are four patterns of attachment: secure attachment, avoidant attachment, disorganized attachment, and ambivalent attachment. Later research found the fourth pattern of attachment is known as disorganized disoriented attachment. Secure attachments reflect trust in the child-caretaker relationship while insecure attachment reflects mistrust. The security of attachment in a child affects the child's emotional, cognitive, and social competence later in life.
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wikipedia
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Causes of mental disorders
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Attachment theory is a kind of evolutionary-psychological approach sometimes applied in the context of mental disorders, which focuses on the role of early caregiver-child relationships, responses to danger, and the search for a satisfying reproductive relationship in adulthood. According to this theory, a child's attachment is to a nurturing adult, the more likely that child will maintain healthy relationships with others in their life. As found by the Strange Situation experiment run by Mary Ainsworth based on the formulations of John Bowlby, there are four patterns of attachment: secure attachment, avoidant attachment, disorganized attachment, and ambivalent attachment. Later research found the fourth pattern of attachment is known as disorganized disoriented attachment. Secure attachments reflect trust in the child-caretaker relationship while insecure attachment reflects mistrust. The security of attachment in a child affects the child's emotional, cognitive, and social competence later in life.
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